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| James Madison, George Washington, and Alexander Hamilton at Mount Vernon debating the constitution |
As
early as 1784, it was apparent to George Washington, James Madison, Alexander
Hamilton, and other politicians that the new government wasn’t working. Under
the Articles of Confederation, the government was weak. It didn’t have the power to raise taxes and police disputes
among the thirteen states.
One
of the first attempts to rework the Articles of Confederation was the Annapolis
Convention, held in 1786. New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and
Virginia got together to rework the Confederation. One outcome of the meeting
was the call for a broader Constitutional Convention in Philadelphia the following
year.
Meanwhile,
George Washington, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and Henry Knox worked
behind the scenes from Mount Vernon to draft a new Constitution. James Madison
was the principal architect of what would become known as the Virginia Plan. It
laid out a vision for the new government that included a strong central
government, a bicameral legislative system (that included the House and
Senate), and an executive and legislative branch.
The
Constitutional Convention was held at Independence Hall in Philadelphia from
May 14—September 17, 1787. George Washington was elected President of the
Convention. He wore his military uniform
and presided over it, sitting in a tall chair on a raised platform overlooking
the other delegates.
Madison’s
Virginia Plan was the starting point for the new Constitution. Virginia Governor Edmund Randolph presented it to the
Convention.
James Madison (colored print after an illustration in
Harper's New Monthly Magazine. 1884)
Unsure of what to expect, the delegates worked behind a veil of secrecy. They sealed the windows and doors and stationed guards inside and outside Independence Hall. Nothing was to be spoken or printed about what happened during the Convention. George Mason told his son they worked behind closed doors because things aren’t always what they appear. People may have gotten the wrong idea about the new Constitution if they only knew partial details about the debates. By waiting until the Convention ended before releasing any information, the people would have the full details of the new Constitution.
The executive office was a sticking
point. Many representatives worried that a powerful executive might attempt to
seize power. Other delegates favored a committee of three rather than having
just one executive officer who exercised unlimited power. Alexander Hamilton
favored appointing the President for a lifetime term. George Mason proposed a single
executive who would rule for seven years with no opportunity for reelection. In
August, John Rutledge made the final recommendation, suggesting the President be elected by the House of Representatives
using a system of electoral votes.
Many
delegates worried about empowering a powerful executive. They only agreed
because everyone expected Washington would become the first president.
Another
issue that plagued the Convention was the apportionment of representatives for
the new government. The smaller states worried they were underrepresented. Rhode
Island refused to take part because it feared
losing its rights. The Southern states
were concerned because the Northern states had a larger population, so they
would have more say in the new government. The final compromise counted slaves
as three-fifths of a person to apportion representation. This compromise gave the Southern states extra representation in the
House of Representatives and the Electoral College.
Slavery
was another ugly issue that raised its head at the Constitutional Convention.
James Madison said that the actual difference between the states was not
size—big or small, but between Northern and Southern States. Ninety percent of
the nation’s slaves lived in the Southern states, and Southerners relied upon slave labor to run their plantations. In
the North, many states had already banned
slavery. Their economy was more industrialized
and did not rely on slave labor.
Alexander Hamilton Speaking at the Constitutional Convention.
(Scribner's Magazine. 1915)
Even slaveholders were unsure of what to do about slavery. Edmund Randolph was a large slaveholder, but he would have abolished slavery if he could have. Thomas Jefferson and George Washington suffered from the same ambivalence. They didn’t know how to justify owning slaves while advocating individual freedoms.
The
final decision on slavery came down to economics. In return for a twenty-year ban on restricting the Atlantic
slave trade, the South removed a Constitutional provision that required all goods to ship on American
vessels. That was good for the Northern economy, and the delegates reluctantly
agreed to the compromise.
As
a result, the slavery issue got put on hold. Most delegates realized they
were leaving a smoking gun for future generations, but it was the only way to
broker a deal that worked for the North and the South.
The
Constitution was ratified on March 4,
1789. George Washington was sworn in as the new nation’s first president on
April 30. Over the next eight years, he
would craft a new government, create the cabinet system, and develop many of
the departments we are familiar with today.
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